2-2. Principles and methods of Education
Education is based on broad and general rules and policies which are called principles of Education. These policies can be appHed and practiced through methods of education which bring the person to the goals of education. It is possible to extract the following principles from the texts that Khajeh Naseer has written (Beheshti, Abuja'afari Faqihi, 2000) :1. Discovering aptitudes
People are different in intellectual aptitude and ability, and personal capacities and interests on sciences, skHis and occupations. If the unique and particular aptitude and interest of each person in different sciences, techniques and skHis are discovered, and she or he is involved in a job and educational field consistent with her or his aptitude and interest, she or he will undoubtedly attain considerable success. Therefore, it is up to individuals, their parents and teachers to discover children's aptitudes and interests to guide them to the way suitable for them.2. Harmony with nature
Khajeh Naseer believes that one should consider children's nature and the gradual trend of their soul faculties, and that education should be in harmony with the stages of their aptitudes development. Since moderation governs the nature, and coherence and system of the world is based on justice, it is also necessary in education that the principle of moderation,which is based on the nature, be observed so that all the human being's aspects be developed.
3. Harmony with the human's nature of seeking God and religion
According to Khajeh Naseer, harmony with human's nature and religion is the certain principle of education, and all educational policies should be based on this nature, and human's perfection is possible through considering the above fact.4. Observing development stages
Khajeh Naseer, regarding education based on the gradual growth and development of the individuals, refers to the stages of development of children, the quality of the gradual formation of their aptitudes and powers, and the procedure of the instruction of the composition lesson to children. The stages of children's education are :A) Suckling period: This stage starts with the birth of children until they become two years old. B) Correction period: After finishing the suckling state, children's education should be started, and they should also be forbidden from companionship with the bad, because they are much influenced by their companions. If their virtues and values are praised, they will turn to these good properties. C) Period of the instruction of religion and morality: the subjects and materials which should be first instructed to children, are religious and morals obligations and that those may become unwavering in their souls. D) Complementary instructions or trainings:
complementary instructions should be started after finishing complementary educations. Students should first be taught the science of ethics if they are interested in acquiring science, after which they should learn social manners and they should be made familiar with social adjustment factors, and move them away from luxury, affluence, wealth and comfort. E) Job and employment: getting a job and occupation should be prepared for youngsters when the period of their complementary training and instruction is finished. This causes that they taste the sweetness of an occupation and earn a living in this way.
5. Observing the student's understanding and comprehension
Different students and pupils have different powers of understanding and comprehension. Observing these individuals' differences and becoming in complete agreement and unanimity with them is of the certain principles of education. Khajeh Naseer emphasizes that every knowledge or science cannot be taught to every person, rather each knowledge is suitable for a particular group, and teaching that particular kind of knowledge to those, who do not deserve it, is considered as an oppression. Some people receive dubious things, but they do not understand the answers to those dubieties. Therefore, such doubts should not be told to them. It is also necessary that teachers and educators should be familiar with logic and can use it when necessary and speak with each person according to her or his particular mentality.6. Counseling
Khajeh Naseer Tusi says that all people need counseling in all of their individual and social fields of life, because it can help to achieve goodness and advisability more simply and prevent badness and loss. Khajeh Naseer also emphasizes that the students and seekers of knowledge discuss about a subject they have learned it, because it may be that an hour of discussion would be better than a month of review and repetition.7. Affection
According to Khajeh Naseer, one should love (a real love) and should be really loved. Thus, if affection governs home, school and society, and is considered in the plans of the officials responsible of educational planning and backgrounds, and plans for its implementation have been provided, then many of corruptions and problems will be solved. The highest kind of affection is that one, which is free from all sorts of defect of materiality, passivity, estrangement and darkness. This kind of affection is given to humans to love the Exalted God. After the inner affection of humans to God, the affection and kindness of parents to their children and of teachers to students are considered as highest affections.8. Encouragement and punishment
Khajeh Naseer has considered encouragement and punishment as two means for the guarantee of the implementation and extension of education, and making soundthe home climate, school, and society, and creating motivation for avoidance of offenses. Ile believes that people are different; a group of them should be led to courtesy and morality by warning and punishment, and another group with encouragement and announcement. Although education is founded on encouragement, and a child should be praised and encouraged in public when she or he does a good behavior and if she or he does a bad behavior, we should try to feign negligence in some cases. But if that bad action is repeated, he or she should be blamed in private, and then state the heinousness of that action and caution her or him against repeating that behavior.
9. Practice and repetition
Khajeh Naseer is of the opinion that practice and repetition cause actualizing and realization of one's aptitudes and abilities. Therefore, people should try to create suitable and desired habits and skHis and finally acquire sensual dispositions through practice and repetition. Students should repeat the lessons happily and with motive, after learning that lesson and reflection and precision in it.10. Interior Purification
According to Khajeh Naseer, interior purification is the purification of the inner self from moral corruptions and it is the first step in self-education without which one cannot he adorned with moral virtues. Thus, students should be pious from the very beginning and keep their heart or soul free from offences so that their knowledge may become fruitful.11. Mortification
Khajeh Naseer believes that mortification is necessary because if the human's soul follows and obeys appetitive and irascible faculties, it will decline to a bestial soul. Although mortification is difficult in the beginning, but considering its effects such as chastity, self- preservation, contentment, trust in God, generosity and piety, it would be sweet and easy.12. Self- vigilance and Self- examination
According to Khajeh Naseer, self-vigilance is that one always tries to avoid sins, worldly involvements, and obstacles of perfection and cares for his or her inward and outward behavior and speech in order not to behave against God.Self-examination is that one controls his or her worships and compares them with God's bounties and then confesses his or her defects and sins before God. Both of these cause one to compensate for previous behaviors and try to clean the effects of sins by worship and mortification.
Khajeh Naseer Tusi's view on educational principles is very similar to Avicenna's. The following items can also be extracted from Khajeh Naseer's writings as the most important of educational principles from his viewpoint :
1. Following Nature
Khajeh has paid much attention to this fact that in education, one should consider man's nature and its gradual development. Thus, the education of children should be quite in harmony with their gradual stages of physical growth. Therefore, weshould first know the stages of children's natural growth and then plan consistently with that nature.
2. Observation of Stages of Education
Khajeh has considered some stages for education, considering the law of following the nature and some other things. These stages are similar to those ones that Avicenna has put forward.3. Observation of Individuals' Differences
Khajeh Naseer recommends observing individual differences of persons in educational planning (Howzeh and University Co- operation Center, 1993, pp. 318- 320).If one wishes to extract some principles from the Farabi's statements, the observing of which originates suitable methods and decisions for achieving goals of education, can refer to the following cases :
Education is for the happiness of the individuals of a society.
Instruction cannot be separated from education, since speculative and practical trainings or instructions are justifiable. Therefore, an instruction, which does not lead to faith and action along with faith and certitude, is useless. Observing individual differences in aptitudes and attitudes to sciences and industries is necessary.
Universal education and instruction are necessary. Those ideas and concepts, which are a prerequisite condition for attaining real happiness, should be taught to all people. Even those ones, who avoid the opinions consistent with Utopia, should become convinced by different methods so that they might turn to right ideas and opinions (Howzeh- University Co-Operation Center, 1998).
Although Farabi has not presented an independent model and design for educational principles, but the following important principles of education can be extracted from his writings and discussions :
1. Social education: according to Farabi's viewpoint, education is social (meaning humans are social by their natures). Therefore, it is necessary that social goals to be considered for their education, and the achieving of Utopia is a goal that should be considered and accomplished in education.
2. Observation of individual differences: Farabi believes that individual differences (different aptitudes and interests of students) should be considered and observed in education.
3. Preparation of individuals for different occupations: Farabi is of the opinion that each person should be educated for a particular skill and occupation, and this fact should be considered from childhood.
4. The effect of geographical environment and quality of buildings: Farabi believes that natural environment, climatic conditions, and architectural fashion are effective in education. Therefore, he recommends that educators should pay attention
to this fact in education (Howzeh- University Co- operation Center, 1993, pp. 271-272).
Education is actualized in the light of some important and comprehensive principles. In the viewpoint of Avicenna. these principles are realized through some educational methods (Howzeh- University Co- Operation Center, 1998) :
1. Self-cognition and Self-education
One should first rectify himself before trying to educate others. To rectify oneself it is necessary to know oneself well. Individuals should completely know their reprehensible properties and habits.2. Observing individual differences
Different people are different in physical powers, powers of thinking, intellect, aptitudes, and other aspects. Their interests towards different crafts are different as well.3. Cognition of aptitudes, interests and possibilities
Discovering intellectual abilities and aptitudes should be considered in the selection of a major (or an educational field) or an occupation and craft. Ibn Sina also believes that personal interests in a major or occupation plays an important role in one's progress and success and prevents from wasting one's time. In addition to all of these, there should also exist the learning of possibilities and instruments for a particular kind of science or occupation.4. Formulating the plan on the basis of the stages of development
Avicenna has paid attention to the stages of development of children in the process of their education, and has considered a particular plan for each of these stages. Therefore, educational planning should be based on the stages of a person's development and growth.5. Group training and instruction
Avicenna emphasizes group instruction and believes that a child should acquire knowledge and do his or her job in group, because good children have a good influence and effect on a child. Observing the above principle causes moral and social education of children, actualizes their intellect and perceptions, and satisfies their spiritual needs.6. Encouragement and punishment
Ibn Sina recommends encouragement and punishment of children as guaranty to keep the admirable dispositions and avoid iniquities and reprehensible habits. He mentions different ways for encouragement or punishment. This indicates that educators should not only use one particular method for encouragement or punishment. For example, encouragement of children can be carried out through praising their good behaviors and moralities, and through getting friendly with children or acknowledging them.According to Avicenna, five principles are of importance in education of children and youngsters: faith, good and
admirable morality, health, knowledge and occupation (Shiite encyclopedia).
7. Selection of Teacher and Friend
Avicenna says in this field that it requires the educator of a child to be wise, religious, and aware of moral education, and to have skHis in the education of children. On the other hand, since one cannot trust one's own cognition of oneself, he or she needs a wise and kind friend to help to show them their morals and moods. (Howzeh and University Co-operation Canter, 1993. pp. 280-283).The following educational principles can be extracted from Ghazali's writings :
1. Imprintability of the child's heart
2. Changeability of morality
3. Graduality of personality formation
4. Effect of habits in education
5. Effect of indoctrination in education
6. Negative or affirmative nature of education
7. Individual differences
8. Different stages of development and growth and the necessity of observing them
The following educational principles can be extracted from Moulavi's works (Beheshti, Abuja'fari Faqini, 2000, pp. 220-232) :
1. Submission to God
Moulavi has emphasized this principle in many cases of his writings and poems. The obeying of this principle gives a particular insight to humans in the light of which they would not see and want save God, and not attach to anything else but Him , and worship only Him. In fact, the real philosophy and reason of all worships is submission and servitude to God.2. Following the Educator
Moulavi has expressed the need of human beings to an aware and reliable educator. He believes that following such educator will bring man to perfection and elevation. Such educator knows the soul, faculties of the soul, existential dimensions of the soul, temptations and deceptions of the soul, and the spirit's pains, and this is the reason why this educator can help others and treat them well. These educators are as physicians and guides, and are pure bondmen of God that never think of the material and worldly pleasures.3. Motivation and Request
Moulavi says that the basis and foundation of attaining the truth is the request or wanting which increases man's efforts and activities.4. Effort and Activity
Moulavi considers effort and activity as great factors for bringing man to goals and aims. He had also introduced these two factors as the cause of man's happiness and joy.5. God's bounty and grace
In addition to effort and activity, the grace of God is a major factor of bringing humans to perfection.6. Esteem or the dignity of man
Moulavi believes that in addition to the satisfaction of the material and superficial needs of people, we should not neglect their high and supreme needs. Man has a structure that can be a manifestation of God and a light of Him. Therefore, he should not lose himself and his esteem or dignity.7. Sociability
Moulavi believes that there is no monasticism or renunciation in Islam. He has introduced joining the society as the way of reaching growth, elevation and perfection. Moulavi says that membership in a society makes man valuable and spiritual, and this causes that man avoids egoism and individualism. It is in the light of joining the society that the spirit of compassion, altruism, patience, trust or good judgment, and affection is cultivated in humans. That is the reason why the principle of sociability has been considered in the Islamic worships.8. Individualism
Moulavi has stated the individual differences and the psychological and intellectual characteristics of each person, and the necessity of observing these factors in life and education. Educational policies should be consistent with the rate of comprehension, understanding, intelligence and aptitude of each student.9. Simplification
Moulavi is of the opinion that this principle is the educational principle of all divine religions and the recommendation of all high mystics; while severity and imposing an ignorant plan indicates crudeness.The educational methods from Moulavi's viewpoint can be divided into two groups: first) methods of student education, second) methods of self training
First) Methods of student education
following educational methods can be extracted from Moulavi's works in this field as some of the important methods :1. Suggestopedia or mimesis method
Moulavi emphasized the effective role of this method in education. He believed that the admonishment of others through one's deeds is more attractive.2. Affection Method
Moulavi believes that an educator can make students attached to him or her and provide the ground for the student's acceptance of education and trust in the educator.3. Encouragement or punishment Method
Moulavi agrees that education is based on encouragement and affection. In spite of this, he has sometimes spoken of punishment when encouragement or kindness is not effective in the education of a student. But the intention of teacher should be educational and for the correction of the student's behaviors, and must not be a kind of revenge, acting out of self-interest or self-comfort.4. Good Admonishment or Positive Advice Method
Moulavi introduces good admonishment or good exhortation as the educational method of God's prophets. He has used this method in many cases and in different stories and exemplum. He refers to two major points in this regard: First) If admonishment is prudent and tactful and its conditions are observed, it will have a very great influence and effect. Second) the main condition for effectiveness of admonishment is the readiness of the one who is to receive that admonishment. Many a stubborn man opposes the friendly advices, or justifies them.5. Counseling Method
Moulavi has spoken of this method in many cases, and has mentioned its role and importance in helping individuals for cognitive changes, creating new insights and finding solutions to different problems.6. The Method of taking an object lesson
Moulavi has introduced the taking lesson method as the sign of intellectuality, insight and growth. He believes that man can take many lessons from the history of the past.7. Storytelling Method
Storytelling is one of the most frequent used methods of Moulavi. He has explained many facts in different kinds of stories.8. Exemplum Method
Moulavi has used exemplum to clarify different subjects to permeate them in audiences and addressees.He has described, in some cases, difficult and complex subjects through using several running subsequent exempla.
Second) Self-training Methods
The following educational methods can be extracted from Moulavi's works in this regard, as some of the important methods (Beheshti, Abuja'fari & Faqihi, 2000, pp. 235- 262) :1. Fulfillment of Knowledge
According to Moulavi, the heart of the matter of knowledge is commitment and action. The criteria of humanity should be searched in practical obligation and commitment, and we should not be beguiled by superficial knowledge of some people. If knowledge is combined with action, it not only brightens the soul of its owner, but also guides the ignorant people. A man, who has no commitment to his knowledge, is like a tree that has no root. On the other hand, from Moulavi's view, the basis of knowledge is intuitional, and this particular kind of knowledge is only obtained through action. It should also be noted that in the event of acting according to superficial science (not intuitional sciences), one can gradually achieve the desired perfection and intuitional knowledge.2. Loving God
Moulavi considers love as the most basic mystical educational method, and believes that spiritual education and development is only possible through having such a love, because love has a power that changes or revolutionizes the personality of the lover and purifies him from himself and from his unbecoming properties, habits and behaviors, and leads him to harmony with the beloved.3. Watching over the soul and self- examination
Moulavi has much talked about watching over the soul and self-examination and their role in self-training. He has considered them as the factors of leading humans to perfection, self-revelation, heart indulgence and passing the stages of Mystic Journey.4. Reciting the Qur'an
Moulavi said to us, regarding the Qur'an, not to consider it like other words and usual concepts because its appearance has a great inner form. If we read the Qur'an and speculate on the deep meaning of each verse, our soul will gain such a magnitude that enthusiasm of flying leaves it restless with no moment of calmness.5. Remembrance and Thinking
Moulavi is of the opinion that man's thinking should be combined with remembrance of God, because this remembrance causes dynamism, purification, and magnificence of thinking, and also causes separation and purification from all sorts of evils and vices. It not only enlightens man's thought, but also it cultivates his inner senses.Ibn Khaldun believes that the following items can be considered as the principles and methods of education (Beheshli, Abuja'fari & Faqihi, 2001, pp. 115- 128) :
1. Graduality in Instruction
According to Ibn Khaldun, the first point, which should be considered here, is that the instruction for a student leads him to learning. When it requires creating a disposition in that student, it needs time and is done gradually, because the aptitude of someone is gradually actualized or realized.2. Consideration of the Measure of the Student's Understanding, Aptitude, and Gradual Cultivation
Ibn Khaldun believes that the amount of intellectual ability of students in scientific subjects and problems should be identified, and then they should be instructed consistently with their aptitudes so that their understanding and aptitude in learning might be cultivated.3. Development of Instruction from the Simple to the Difficult
Ibn Khaldun is of the opinion that not observing the above mentioned fact and not considering the correct instructional and teaching method cause students not to comprehend the subject matter and then drop out.4. Applying Different Teaching Methods
It is up to the teacher to be aware of different teaching methods and be able to apply them in order to use the suitable method and procedure in instruction and teaching. Ibn Khaldun believes that teachers can use different teaching methods for their students. Some of these methods are: first) lecture; ateaching method in which the teacher tries to transfer his knowledge to the student. There is a one-sided dialogue between teacher and student and the lecture is teacher-centered. Second) Suggestopedia teaching method in which the subject matters are taught to the students through their imagination by deeds or speeches. Third) dialectic and scientific dialogue (debate) between teachers and students, or encouraging the students to discuss with one another.
Ibn Khaldun considers the second method more complete and more comprehensive than the first one is. Ile also believes that the third teaching method is the simplest one for the students to learn.
5. Creating a suitable ground and atmosphere for learning and removing the obstacles
Ibn Khaldun says that there are the following obstacles and problems for learners in learning, and teachers should try to remove or solve them :Applying vague words
Selection of a brief and short text (or subject matter)
Abundance of text books (as instructional sources)
Frequently involvement in instrumental sciences
Teaching materials beyond student's understanding
Mixing the subject matters
Longitude of instruction time
Concurrent instruction of two different disciplines
Verbal controversies
