(3) Educational Epistemology
3-1. Learning
Ghazali believes that the human's soul easily accepts education, for there is basically knowledge and wisdom in it. These two items have been given to the soul from the very beginning of creation, and one should try to actualize them, as one should try to dig a well and then take out water. Knowledge is obtained from two different ways: first) the divine revelation and inspiration. The divine revelation is revealed by God to the prophets that had finished with the prophet of Islam. The inspiration is inspired to the saints and it still continues and does not end. Second) usual and current instruction and learning in schools. To achieve this particular kind of learning, some principles should be observed: 1) Cultivation and reinforcement of moral aspect before instruction, 2) Consideration of individual differences and aptitudes, 3) Graduality and sequence in instruction and learning. 4) Rewarding and punishment, 5) Encouragement and motivation, 6) Having a master (teacher), and presence in classroom (instruction), 7) Practice, action, and repetition, 8) involvement in schoolingGhazali invites people to an open attitude to different sciences and to show an open face to them, whatever their
subjects might be, because knowledge, irrespective of its subject, is noble.
It is necessary that differences among ideas are to be accepted. Diversity of ideas and views in a single subject is not a reason for invalidation of that subject. There are two reasons for this opinion of Ghazali: first) there are many kinds of potential sciences that have not bean yet actualized, and humans can achieve them. Second) discovering of one new science causes deepness in one's faith and firmness in Islam. If religious sciences cause cognition of God and His Attributes, natural sciences reveal and expose the Acts of the Exalted God in existence. Thus, Ghazali invites teachers to inform their students of the value of all sciences in order that the students, observing graduality and sequence, may study other sciences after learning each branch of science. Ghazali is of the opinion that it is up to the wise of a society to study and investigate the new or foreign subject and make it suitable for their own society adorned with values.
According to this viewpoint, scientific and cultural interaction and exchange are carried out among the wise, because Ghazali believes that it is dangerous for the beginners in knowledge to go to an environment which is against their own beliefs and values (Kilani, Translation, Criticism and additions by Rafiie, 2007).
Ghazali believes that education can bring humans from what they are in to what they should be. Education, as life, is the natural right of everyone. Man has been created for worship and servitude of God, and education is not only the prerequisite
of worship of God, but it is also a kind of worship. Ghazali considers education both as an individual necessity and as a social necessity, for it is in the light of which that culture and thought remain, and it is also a means for transmission from a generation to another. Therefore, what culture and thought man has is from education, without which man worth nothing, and he is the product of his own education. Imam Ali, in a very educational warning, says to the educators to educate their children for today. The delicate point of this wise statement is that the development of a child should, at least, be in harmony with the natural development of culture and civilization and positive transformations of humans' life. Some parents have no view about life except that which they themselves wish. Then, they educate their children as they themselves desire or as they have been educated. While according to the saying of Imam Ali, parents should think beyond their own time. It is not only the student that needs to be educated but even the educator needs to be educated, and he or she needs to educate someone else (the student), and this need is satisfied through education of another person (the student), and this is one of the reasons for the affection of the great teachers toward their noble students (Rafiei, 2002).
Ibn Sina has mentioned the necessity of this fact that the students' interests should be known and discovered and they (students) should be much cared for to be educated to become moderate persons. To do this, one should not let anger or grief overcome him. They should be kept away from what they hate. Moral modification causes the body and the spirit health. Ibn Sina also wants education to be a means for entering in
production and participation in the economic activities of the society. Thus, lbn Sina deems it necessary that a boy, after learning the Qur'an and the principles of the Arabic language, should be led to one of crafts and occupations that is consistent to his nature (Ali & Reza; translation, Criticism and additions by Rafiee, 2005).
Teaching and instruction methods should bring the students to the educational goals. Therefore, to reach the goals envisioned by Sa'di, there is emphasis on such activities as question and answer and improved lecture methods. He also suggested some points in teaching, instruction, and learning that can improve the students' education. He not only emphasized paying attention to the techniques of speaking or talking, but also placed much emphasis on the distinct role of silence as one of the greatest techniques or methods of increasing and improving educational policies.
The importance of questioning and asking according to Sa'di's viewpoint is revealed when he says, "They asked Imam Mohammad Bin Mohammad Ghazali, (on whom be the mercy of God) by what means he had attained such a degree of knowledge. He repHed, 'In this manner, whatever I did not know, I was not ashamed to enquire about...'" He tells people to inquire about every thing they do not know; "since for the small trouble of asking, you will be guided in the respectable road of knowledge (Gulistan, chapter VIII, tale LXXVII). However, he also notes that "whenever you are certain that any thing will be known to you in time, be not hasty in inquiring after it" (ibid, tale LXXVIII). One should think and then
answer. He says, "whosoever doth not reflect before he giveth an answer, will generally speak improperly" (Gulistan, chapter VIII, tale XXXVI).
Sa'di refers to three points in applying the question-andanswer method. First, we should question for knowledge: He believes that one should not ask a question for pedantry, ostentation and dawdling, and for getting information about the others' private and personal affairs. Therefore, if the questioner receives his answer without asking and with patience and silence, it is not necessary that he asks a question. Second, ask questions from the wise ones: Sa'di is of the opinion that one should ask educated. knowledgeable and well-intentioned scholars. Third, he believes in the necessity of a well-thoughtout answer. When a wise person wants to give the answer to a question, he will do this in a thought-provoking way. technically and with good intentions because the unexamined speech can mislead instead of increasing knowledge (Beheshti, Faqihi Abuja'fari, 2001).
When speaking and questioning or answering, Sa'di emphasizes not interrupting the others. "No one confesses his own ignorance, excepting he who begins speaking whilst another is talking, and before the discourse is ended" (Gulistan, chapter IV, tale VII). The reason Sa'di says this is that "a discourse hath a commencement and a conclusion" (ibid). In another instance, he says, "Whosoever interrupts the conversation of others to make a display of his own wisdom, certainly betrays his ignorance" (Gulistan, chapter VIII, tale
LXXXII). He adds, "A wise man speaketh not until they ask him a question" (ibid).
Sa'di orders all people, "Till you perceive a convenient time for conversing, lose not your own consequence by talking to no purpose" (Gulistan, chapter 1, tale XIII). Sa'di says that when a business can be managed without one's interference, it is not proper for him to speak on the subject; but if he sees a blind man in the way of a well, if he keeps silence, it is a crime (Gulistan, chapter I, tale XXXVIII). Therefore, Sa'di concludes, "Until you are persuaded that the discourse is strictly proper, speak not; and whatever you know will not obtain a favorable answer, ask not" (Gulistan, chapter VII, tale XIII). "He who listens not to advice, studies to hear reprehension. When advice gains not admission into the ear, if they reprehend you, be silent" (Gulistan, chapter VIII, tale XLVIII).
Since Sa'di believed the sources of knowledge are unlimited, he did not confine himself to formal and classic textbooks. He placed particular emphasis on informal learning, by which the students try to take lessons from the great school of nature and the events of their lives and the lives of other people, in all places and times. Thus, people should not confine themselves to the appearance of matters; rather, they should make great effort to get to the essence of matters and subjects and try to comprehend their truth. The educational method of storytelling utilized by Sa'di in both poetry and prose can be considered as an epitome of the teaching methods. Therefore, students should be committed to this approach in
that they not only study history books, for example, but also must pay great attention to all of history, nature, and all human beings, if they wish to reach the highest educational goals. This is also a task of all scholars and authorities in the educational system.
Sa'di believes in hidden learning and learning from all things. For example, he relates, "They asked Loqman from whom he had learnt urbanity, and he repHed, 'From those of rude manners; for whatsoever I saw in them that was disagreeable, I avoided doing the same.' Not a word can be said, even in the midst of sport, from which a wise man will not derive instruction" (Gullistan. Chapter II. tale XXI).
Sa'di believes in "informal learning" and says, "Listen to the discourse of a learned man with the utmost attention" (Gullistan. Chapter 11, tale XXXVIII). Sa'di wants all people to pay attention to the admonitions of the advisers and take lessons from them. Ile says, "Know you not, that you will see your feet in fetters, when you listen not to the admonition of mankind" (Gulistan, chapter I, tale XVI). Sa'di believes that "admonition" comes before "confinement", saying, "Great men first admonish, and then confine; when they give advice and you listen not, they put you in fetters" (Gulistan. chapter XIII. tale XC). Sa'di says that it is up to humans to admonish even though the other does not listen: "Admonish and exhort as your duty requires; if they mind not, it does not concern you. Although thou knowest that they will not listen, nevertheless speak whatever you know that is advisable. It will soon come to pass that you will see the silly fellow with his feet in the
stocks, there smiting his hands and exclaiming, 'Alas! that I did not listen to the wise man's advice' (Gulistan, chapter VII, tale V).
Sa'di also believes, "The fortunate take warning from the histories and precepts of the ancients, in order that they do not become an example to posterity" (Gulistan, chapter XIII, tale XC). Therefore, Sa'di orders all people, "Take warning by the misfortunes of others, that others may not take example from you" (ibid).
Teaching methods and instructional content alone are not sufficient to bring students to the educational goals. It is also necessary to utilize particular techniques to improve and accelerate the gradual progress of students toward those goals. Encouragement and punishment of students are necessary techniques. The reasons for using these two are the same: leading students to educational goals. It is necessary for educators and teachers to be the epitome of both authority and affection, so students will both respect and love them.
A teacher should be the epitome of affection and authority. He explains, "Anger, when excessive, createth terror; and kindness out of season destroys authority" (Gulistan, chapter VIII, tale XVIII). Therefore, Sa'di believes that teachers should be not so severe as to cause disgust, nor so lenient as to encourage audacity. Severity and lenity should be tempered together; a wise man carries not severity to excess, nor suffers such relaxation as will lessen his own dignity. Thus, one should be complacent, but not to that degree that they may insult him with the sharp teeth of the wolf (ibid).
Sa'di believes that one should use both encouragement and punishment in a timely manner, adequately and thoughtfully, because undue, unnecessary and unexamined anger and punishment makes the student truant, and the undue encouragement makes him or her be arrogant, egoistic and exigent to the extent that she or he does not obey the teacher or the educator. According to the viewpoint of Sa'di, encouragement and motivating others is of particular importance and can influence them for better performance to accomplish the desired goals (Gulistan, chapter I, tale III).
Sa'di puts emphasis on praising the students and says in this regard, "If you wish to preserve peace with your enemy, whenever he slanders you in your absence, in return praise him to his face; at any rate as the words will issue from the lips of the pernicious man, if you wish that his speech should not be bitter, make his mouth sweet" (Gulistan, chapter I, tale XXIV). Sa'di does not think it advisable to overindulge in blame when the blame is necessary (Gulistan, chapter I, tale XVI).
It appears that Sa'di affirms punishment when necessary. Sa'di says, "A king sent his son to school, and placed a silver tablet under his arm. On the face of the tablet was written in gold, "The severity of the master is better than the indulgence of the father" (Gulistan, chapter VII, tale IV). However, punishment should be the last method in education and not the first one. He professes, "When the hand has failed in every trick, it is lawful to draw the sword" (Gulistan. chapter XIII. tale XV). "Forgiveness is commendable, but apply not ointment to the wound of an oppressor. Knoweth he not that
whosoever spareth the life of a serpent, committeth injury towards the sons of Adam (ibid, tale XVI). The reason Sa'di confirms punishment in some cases is that "An enemy does not become a friend through indulgence; nay, it increases his avarice. Be humble unto him who shows you kindness" (Gulistan, chapter VIII, tale LXXXI). In another tale, he adds, "When you speak to a low fellow with kindness and benignity, it increases his arrogance and perverseness" (Gulistan, chapter VIII, tale LXI). He believes the base men do not deserve affections because "when you connect yourself with base men, and show them favor, they commit crimes with your power, whereby you participate in their guilt" (Gulistan, chapter VIII, tale VIII). In another instance, he says, "When you support and favor the vicious, you commit wickedness with your power, by participation (Gulistan, chapter VIII, tale LIII).
Sa'di believes that in spite of some of similarities between different people, there are some differences in their aptitudes as compared with each other (meaning there are differences between their physical, intellectual, social, emotional and moral aptitudes).
Sa'di says that people should consider the extent of their abilities. He is of the opinion that "whosoever contendeth with the great sheds his own blood. He, who thinks himself great, has been. compared to one who squints and sees double. You will get a broken front by sporting your head against a ram" (Gulistan, chapter XIII, tale XLV). In another example of this, he says, "It is not the part of a wise man to box with a lion, or to strike his fist against a sword. Neither fight nor contend with
one more powerful than you are; put your hand under your armpit" (ibid, tale XLVI). He also warns, "A weak man, who contends with one that is strong, befriends his adversary by his own death". (ibid, tale XLVII). Sa'di emphasizes that the teachers should speak to students in conformity with the temper of the hearer (Gulistan, chapter VIII, talc XXIX).
Due to the viewpoint of Moulavi, one of the points that a teacher should consider is the individual differences of the students that the teacher must pay attention to the fact that the addressees and the students arc quite different in aptitudes, attitudes, interests, knowledge, etc., and therefore, the sayings and teachings of the teacher should be in accordance with these differences. It is also up to the teacher to consider the spiritual capacity of his students. The word "reminding" can indicate that Moulavi believes that man has the best potential aptitudes in himself, and one of the responsibilities of the tutor and teacher is to nurture those aptitudes.
Motahhari (1997) emphasizes that teacher should pay attention to the mental and psychological states of students, and not to make them tired when they are not ready for learning.
According to Motahhari (1997), if a teacher uses encouragement or punishment for students, they should be aware of the reason of this action of the teacher, because these actions might become useless when the students do not know which behaviors of them should continue or which of them should be improved or avoided.
Motahhari (1996 and 1997) takes much emphasis on harmonious cultivation and breeding of all of the students' aptitudes; physical, intellectual, social, emotional, moral and religious.
Motahhari (1997) does not accept those habits which individuals do passively without any thinking, brightness and luminosity (of the soul). He emphasizes the education and acquisition of knowledge in childhood and narrates this say that knowledge in childhood is like inscription on a stone.
He introduces work as a factor of concentration and prevention from committing sins. He also believes that the particular aptitudes of every person should be considered in choosing any job or occupation for him or her. A good work can be very effective on man's feelings, personality and self-esteem.
According to Nasri (2003), the necessity of society is not only for satisfying one's biological needs, rather human beings need social life in their spiritual dimension. Therefore, many natural aptitudes of humans are not actualized without society.
Motahhari considered "teaching" of his students as a religious worship and obligation (Educational Facilities Affaires and Libraries Bureau or EFALB, 2007). In addition to the fact that Motahhari had mastered teaching, he also had a great piety and moral obligation and commitment. That was one of the reasons why he was well accepted by his students. Motahhari never gave a contemptuous look to his students. He listened to his students and answered their questions carefully.
In addition to his gentility, his behavior towards the students was friendly and kindly. He tried to solve his students' problems. He made great efforts to educate his students to be alert and sensible critics. He was much interested in seeking truth. Motahhari put forward the scientific and religious problems, and then encouraged his students to pursue and solve them. He respected scientific opinions even though he was opposed to them. He deeply investigated the subjects, and he reacted scientifically to them. He sometimes used discussion-teaching method, and he often used question and answer teaching method. Sometimes, one third or more of the time of the class was spent on solving the lesson-related problems of the students and answering their questions. He warmly welcomed the students' questions and gave suitable answers to them. Motahhari had a clear speech when teaching and explaining the subject matters. He had also a regular and disciplined way of teaching. He described well the prefatory notes at the beginning of his teaching, and determined all the lesson upon which the preliminaries were based. He spoke clearly and wrote in a simple style and used many examples. He taught with enthusiasm and mastered the relations of sciences with each other. The materials he taught were new, and his students knew the benefit and application of those materials. He paid attention to the individual differences of the students and encouraged the active and cheerful pupils. Therefore, his teaching did not appear to be monotonous, and his students did not become tired (EFALB, 2007).
3-2. Educating a child
Family should be so fit that can represent admirable and useful children to society. Avicenna shows much emphasis on the product of a marriage (children and their education). He has introduced the following periods as the stages of a child development and growth upon which his or her education should be based: I) prior to instruction: Ibn Sina considers the first stage of the development of a child from the birth to about six years old. The duty of parents in this stage is giving a name to their child. It is up to them to choose a good name for the child; a name which is admirable due to religion and society. The second duty of the parents is milking their child. Avicenna recommends that a child should have her or his mother's milk. In the event of choosing a nanny, she should have a praiseworthy morality, a healthy nature, and be away from foolishness and illness, because her milk affects the child. The third duty of parents in the above stage is the correction of their child. When the child is weaned, his or her correction should be started before blameworthy dispositions and reproachable habits may attack him or her. That is because Avicenna believes that the child tends to evil and appeals to reprehensible habits and dispositions faster, and then these bad properties overcome his or her nature, and it will hardly be possible to make him or her get rid of these habits and properties. The second stage starts when the child's joints have grown and the child has possessed verbal and aural readiness, and suggestibility. Although Avicenna has not mentioned a particular age for this stage, but he has considered the suitableage for beginning primary education to be when the child is six years old. Ibn Sina is of the opinion that the subject matters the child should learn are: the Qur'an, writing and reading, and knowledge of the religion, besides the instruction of those poems which instigate the child. Simultaneous with this, intellectual and moral education should be carried out. Avicenna believes that memorizing poems, understanding, and repeating them can cause intellectual cultivation, strengthen the memory and intellectual readiness, and promote the level of comprehension on one the hand, and on the other, it leads the child to good morality and behavior of which the poems are composed, and installs the moral virtues in the child's soul. Thus, the child gradually appeals to good deeds through speculative accepting of good moralities and habits. In the stage of vocational training, an adolescent should learn the occupations and crafts he loves, select them, and make herself or himself ready for them. When one masters that occupation, he should turn to the acquisition of income and earn his livelihood by his own wage.
After the above stage, one can get married and form an independent family. Avicenna does not mention a definite age for this stage, but so much is certain that this new stage can begin when a person has passed successfully the previous four stages: been adorned with praiseworthy properties and habits morally and behaviorally, and possessed the necessary ability economically and intellectually for managing his family.
Although Avicenna himself has not directly defined education, but considering the ideas of him, it can be deduced
that he believes that the nature of education is planning and activity of society and individuals for the soundness of family, child's development, and the management of social affaires to bring human beings to happiness in this world and the hereafter (Howzeh-University Co-Operation Center, 1998). Avicenna emphasizes education of children, and has put forward new subjects in this field (Shiite, encyclopedia, 2007).
3-3. Curriculum and Educational Contents
Khajeh Naseer Tusi has formulated the children's educational plan according to their natural development. Thus, he believes that this plan should extend consistently with the development of the children's powers and abilities. Appetitive faculty should be first paid attention to since the beginning, because it is the first faculty that appears in humans, and it has been installed in them for their survival. This is the reason why children search first for food, water and sleep. Therefore, before overcoming blameworthy morals and habits through satisfying this faculty, they should be corrected with good manners and praiseworthy dispositions and manners of living such as the manners of eating food, speaking, socializing, taking exercise, besides other good dispositions such as humbleness, obeying the parents and teachers, and in addition, religious teachings should be taught to them. When children grow more, they should the taught with reason and proof of what they have already learned through imitation and appeal to science or crafts on the basis of their capacity, aptitude, and interest. If they want to learn wisdom, they should first learnlogics so that they might learn the procedure of thinking correctly, to be kept away from intellectual errors, and they should then learn mathematics to become familiar with argumentative problems, and at the end, they should engage in philosophy and wisdom. Khajeh Naseer has mentioned three fundamental points regarding educational plans: 1) educational plans should start with those texts which are simple in content and small in volume, in order that children may enjoy acquiring knowledge, and then harder texts should gradually be started. 2) Educational plans should be formulated in such a manner that every person, who is involved in acquiring each branch of science and skill, may bring it to its final and ultimate state, and does not give it up in the middle of the way. 3) In educational plans, fundamental, durable and old sciences should be preferred to new and endurable sciences. Islamic sciences should be considered as the most valuable ones, and prayer and relation with God should be more paid attention to, because these two are very fruitful for the learning of sciences and achieving the nearness to God. They make man familiar with origin and end (Beheshi, Abuja'afari & Faqihi, 2000). Khajeh Naseer recommends that it is necessary for the principles of health to be taught to students (Modarresi, 2000). Khajeh Naseer believed that medicine, astrology and philosophy could be appHed for the welfare and health of people. Therefore, he was always thinking to find a way to encourage people toward empirical sciences. He himself was famous because of his very comprehensive information regarding wisdom, astrology, medicine, mathematics and religious sciences (Badkubehee Hazavehee, 2004).
Khajeh Naseer Tusi mentions that it was in the light of "knowledge" that God showed the superiority of Adam to angels and ordered them to prostrate before Adam. In addition to this, knowledge is the means of bringing humankind to the eternal happiness. Therefore, a seeker of knowledge is a growing existence that does not surrender to ignorance. It is up to a learner to choose the best from each branch of science, and seek a science that is needed now and for the affaires of the world, and then for a science that is needed in the future. It is also up to the learner to prefer knowledge of Monotheism and try to recognize God through argument and reason. Students should choose the more aware, pious, and older ones as their teachers. In addition It is necessary that the students themselves always try to speculate regarding the accurate problems and points, for these things can only be comprehended through deep consideration.
A student should have self-esteem and should be high-minded, and seek simultaneously the acquisition of knowledge and earning of living. He should never wish for people's properties. There is no particular time for acquiring knowledge. Students should always seek knowledge to achieve virtues. This is a picture that Khajeh Naseer portraits for a student and shows him or her as a person who has decided to strive in the cause of God and transacts with God to exalt the esteem of knowledge and extend its lights in the boundaries of life, in order that he or she might be purified, and this is the task and duty of all the God's prophets.
Due to the Ghazali's view, curriculum has an extensive and complete structure ire which religious sciences and worldly occupations interact and are taught with each other. Intellectual sciences are like drug for health and religious sciences are like food. It is not meant in such a comprehensive instruction that a learner should achieve expertise in all fields of the curriculum, rather it is meant that the learner should become familiar with the general features of sciences in order that it might help him or her to achieve a cognitive perfection, and then become expert and master in a particular field of science. Curriculum is extensive and it includes diverse fields of knowledge and work. Ghazali believes that the standard and criteria of value and distinguishing of sciences from each other are the result of each branch of science and firmness of the reasons for that science. Due to the viewpoint of Ghazali about both obligatory and voluntary sciences, their rate of obligation is based on one's life development and the conditions of a society. For example, when an individual reaches the legal age (at which one should undergo religious commandments) prayer becomes obligatory on him, or whenever a person has a wealth, he should pay alms from it in certain percentage. One should have the knowledge of all obligations. Such a concept, for Ghazali, is a changeable concept that causes the curriculum to develop in harmony with an individual's life and society's conditions and development. The domains of curriculum, from Ghazali's viewpoint is almost equal to the educational principles of the Qur'an and the Islamic traditions, the most important of which are: the domain of the Islamic belief, the domain of the soul purification, the domain of the study of the Qur'an and the systems and
principles mentioned in it, the domain of appHed skHis (Kilani; translation, Criticism and additions by Rafiie, 2007).
Ghazali believes that curriculum should consist of Qur'an instruction, good news, stories and biographies of the righteous, and memorizing of good poems. Ghazali also is of the opinion that the child himself should face problems and difficulties in order that he might acquire the necessary readiness for tolerating and solving the life problems. He considers physical training as a necessary part of curriculum to move the students away from weakness and infirmity. He considers play as a natural means for learning and progress of students (Sheari Nejad, 1998).
Avicenna recommends learners to decide to learn "natural sciences", "pure mathematics and arithmetic", "divine science" and "logic" that help to know the truth for itself and virtue for its acceptance, and act according to them. He deems necessary to teach linguistics, because it is necessary for all of us to apply. the words, and these help thinking. Despite all of these, Avicenna believes that it is necessary to learn philosophy before other sciences, because it makes humans familiar with the truth of the facts and phenomena as far as it is possible for humankind. Phenomena are divided into two groups: first) those affaires whose existence depends on our will power and our actions, second) those affaires whose existence is not dependent upon our will power or our actions. Knowledge or cognition to the first group is called speculative philosophy, and to the second group is called practical philosophy. The aim of the speculative philosophy is the Perfection of the human
soul through learning, and the aim of practical philosophy is the completion and perfection of the soul not only through instruction, but also through instruction of what is done and acting according to it (Ali & Reza; translation, criticism and additions, by Rafiee, 2005).
Motahhari (1997) emphasizes this fact that we should also pay attention to the future, its needs and conditions in educational and curriculum planning and teaching.
